Vitiligo-Λευκη

Hysterectomy

Abdominal hysterectomy is a surgical procedure that removes your uterus through an incision in your lower abdomen. Sometimes the procedure also includes removal of one or both ovaries and fallopian tubes. Hysterectomy ranks as one of the most common surgical procedures among women.

Hysterectomy can also be performed through an incision in the vagina (vaginal hysterectomy). But abdominal hysterectomy is the preferred approach if you have a large uterus or if your doctor wants to check other pelvic organs for signs of disease.

Needed if women suffer from:

Gynecologic cancer, Fibroids, Endometriosis, Uterine prolapse,Persistent vaginal bleeding, Chronic pelvic pain

Hysterectomy ends your ability to become pregnant. If you think you might want to become pregnant, ask your doctor about alternatives to this surgery. In the case of cancer, hysterectomy might be the only option. But other conditions — including fibroids, endometriosis and uterine prolapse — have alternative treatments that you can try first.
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hysterectomy/MY00163

Patient Controlled Analgesia

Spinal Cord Anatomy

Epidural and Spinal Analgesia

Conversion among Different Opioids

http://www.mywhatever.com/cifwriter/library/70/4932.html

Fetal Medicine

Hydrocephalus

The term hydrocephalus is derived from the Greek words "hydro" meaning water and "cephalus" meaning head. As the name implies, it is a condition in which the primary characteristic is excessive accumulation of fluid in the brain. Although hydrocephalus was once known as "water on the brain," the "water" is actually cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) — a clear fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. The excessive accumulation of CSF results in an abnormal widening of spaces in the brain called ventricles. This widening creates potentially harmful pressure on the tissues of the brain.

Symptoms of hydrocephalus vary with age, disease progression, and individual differences in tolerance to the condition. For example, an infant's ability to compensate for increased CSF pressure and enlargement of the ventricles differs from an adult's. The infant skull can expand to accommodate the buildup of CSF because the sutures (the fibrous joints that connect the bones of the skull) have not yet closed.

In infancy, the most obvious indication of hydrocephalus is often a rapid increase in head circumference or an unusually large head size. Other symptoms may include vomiting, sleepiness, irritability, downward deviation of the eyes (also called "sunsetting"), and seizures.

Older children and adults may experience different symptoms because their skulls cannot expand to accommodate the buildup of CSF. Symptoms may include headache followed by vomiting, nausea, papilledema (swelling of the optic disk which is part of the optic nerve), blurred or double vision, sunsetting of the eyes, problems with balance, poor coordination, gait disturbance, urinary incontinence, slowing or loss of developmental progress, lethargy, drowsiness, irritability, or other changes in personality or cognition including memory loss.

Symptoms of normal pressure hydrocephalus include, problems with walking, impaired bladder control leading to urinary frequency and/or incontinence, and progressive mental impairment and dementia. An individual with this type of hydrocephalus may have a general slowing of movements or may complain that his or her feet feel "stuck." Because some of these symptoms may also be experienced in other disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, normal pressure hydrocephalus is often incorrectly diagnosed and never properly treated. Doctors may use a variety of tests, including brain scans (CT and/or MRI), a spinal tap or lumbar catheter, intracranial pressure monitoring, and neuropsychological tests, to help them accurately diagnose normal pressure hydrocephalus and rule out any other conditions.

The symptoms described in this section account for the most typical ways in which progressive hydrocephalus manifests itself, but it is important to remember that symptoms vary significantly from one person to the next.

http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/hydrocephalus/detail_hydrocephalus.htm

Spina bifida

Spina bifida is a birth defect that involves the incomplete development of the spinal cord or its coverings. The term spina bifida comes from Latin and literally means "split" or "open" spine.

Spina bifida occurs at the end of the first month of pregnancy when the two sides of the embryo's spine fail to join together, leaving an open area. In some cases, the spinal cord or other membranes may push through this opening in the back. The condition usually is detected before a baby is born and treated right away.

Types of Spina Bifida
The causes of spina bifida are largely unknown. Some evidence suggests that genes may play a role, but in most cases there is no familial connection. A high fever during pregnancy may increase a woman's chances of having a baby with spina bifida. Women with epilepsy who have taken the drug valproic acid to control seizures may have an increased risk of having a baby with spina bifida.

The two forms of spina bifida are spina bifida occulta and spina bifida manifesta.

Spina bifida occulta is the mildest form of spina bifida (occulta means hidden). Most children with this type of defect never have any health problems, and the spinal cord is often unaffected.

Spina bifida manifesta includes two types of spina bifida:

1.Meningocele involves the meninges, the membranes responsible for covering and protecting the brain and spinal cord. If the meninges push through the hole in the vertebrae (the small, ring-like bones that make up the spinal column), the sac is called a meningocele.
2.Myelomeningocele is the most severe form of spina bifida. It occurs when the meninges push through the hole in the back, and the spinal cord also pushes though. Most babies who are born with this type of spina bifida also have hydrocephalus, an accumulation of fluid in and around the brain.

Because of the abnormal development of and damage to the spinal cord, a child with myelomeningocele typically has some paralysis. The degree of paralysis largely depends on where the opening occurs in the spine. The higher the opening is on the back, the more severe the paralysis tends to be.
Children with spina bifida often have problems with bowel and bladder control, and some may have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or other learning difficulties, such as hand-eye coordination problems.

http://kidshealth.org/parent/system/ill/spina_bifida.html

White paper- Pharmacy

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H4UTmU04cQ8
http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_083815

Laparoscopy

Laparoscopy is direct visualization of the peritoneal cavity, ovaries, outside of the tubes and uterus by using a laparoscopy. The laparoscopy is an instrument somewhat like a miniature telescope with a fiber optic system which brings light into the abdomen. It is about as big around as a fountain pen and twice as long.

An instrument to move the uterus during surgery will be placed in the vagina. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is put into the abdomen through a special needle that is inserted just below the navel. This gas helps to separate the organs inside the abdominal cavity, making it easier for the physician to see the reproductive organs during laparoscopy. The gas is removed at the end of the procedure.

Microlaparoscopy a new minimally invasive diagnostic surgical procedure uses telescopes and instruments that are much smaller than normal. If this procedure is appropriate for your condition, smaller incisions will be made and postoperative abdominal tenderness may be reduced.

http://www.ivf.com/laprscpy.html

mycoplasma genitalium

http://www.womens-health.co.uk/mycoplasma-genitalium.html

donovanosis

http://www.healthwellness1.com/sexuallytransmitteddisease/donovanosis.html

chancroid

http://www.health.state.ny.us/diseases/communicable/chancroid/fact_sheet.htm
http://std.about.com/gi/o.htm?zi=1/XJ&zTi=1&sdn=std&cdn=health&tm=460&gps=703_483_1276_599&f=10&tt=12&bt=0&bts=0&zu=http%3A//www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/2006/genital-ulcers.htm%23genulc2

Herpes simplex

http://www.nhs.uk/LiveWell/STIs/Pages/STIs-hub.aspx
http://www.herpes.org.uk/faq.html#22

Chlamydia testing

http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/STIs/Pages/Chlamydia.aspx

12-15years old LifeCheck

Teens Life Check is a usefull questionnaire for teens who are competent to deal with some of their health issues and need some general tips on what to do regarding nutrition, smoking, drugs, sexual intercourse, family problems, school issues, friendships and feelings.
http://www.teenlifecheck.co.uk/
http://www.teachingtimes.com/articles/the-teen-lifecheck.htm

A few secs before death

Scabies

Guess this is real malnutrition

affinity chromatography

fachschaft.biochemtech.uni-halle.de/.../chromatography/affchr.pdf

http://www.skinsight.com/adult/cellulitis.htm
http://www.merck.com/mmpe/sec05/ch052/ch052b.html#CIHHGHHH

kidney diseases

http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/hemodialysis/
http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/peritoneal/
http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/vascularaccess/
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-hemofiltration.htm
http://vasculitis.med.jhu.edu/typesof/typesof.html
http://www.unckidneycenter.org/kidneyhealthlibrary/antigbm.html

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.paterson.man.ac.uk/images/carcinogenesis/carcino2.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.paterson.man.ac.uk/carcinogenesis/dna-damage.stm&usg=__XQ90Sj4dV-IonzGkzeuO3KxMIpg=&h=289&w=530&sz=19&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=tVzyLBNOUC4FEM:&tbnh=72&tbnw=132&prev=/images%3Fq%3DO6-methylguanine%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:*:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7GGLJ%26sa%3DN%26um%3D1

myweb.unomaha.edu/~dstack/2250/Overheads/EWG_EDG.PDF

Selectivity, Specificity, Potency

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6904/5/3

H1N1 virus

http://www.virology.ws/2009/04/30/structure-of-influenza-virus/
http://glorious.tigblog.org/post/654575

Epcam role in cancer and Anti-epcam drugs

A fusion protein immunotoxin consisting of a humanized, single-chain monoclonal antibody fragment specific for the epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM) conjugated with a truncated form of Pseudomonas exotoxin A with potential antineoplastic activity. Anti-EpCAM-Pseudomonas-exotoxin fusion protein binds to Ep-CAM-positive tumor cells, thereby delivering the Pseudomonas exotoxin A moiety specifically; the Pseudomonas exotoxin A moiety then inactivates elongation factor 2 (EF-2) through ADP ribosylation, resulting in inhibition of protein synthesis in target cells. EpCAM, a cell surface protein, is expressed by a variety of tumor cells and is frequently found in head and neck cancers. Check for active clinical trials or closed clinical trials using this agent.
http://www.cancer.gov/drugdictionary/?CdrID=485164

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WGD-4BHSXSD-R&_user=126089&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1097247906&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000010279&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=126089&md5=d62a213546f48f1aab6d8502766c72a3

http://pis.to/cgtg/publications/Kanerva%20Hemminki.%20Int%20J%20Cancer%20Review%2004.pdf

http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/13/13/3899.full

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WN5-4FXNRH9-2&_user=126089&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1097266874&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000010279&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=126089&md5=8f56edbd76d15d8236514b3fd12c1601

News: HPV vaccine

http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Cervical-Cancer-HPV-Vaccine-Now-Available-In-Boots-Pharmacies-Across-England-And-Wales/Article/200909215379269?lpos=UK_News_Article_Related_Content_Region_8&lid=ARTICLE_15379269_Cervical_Cancer_HPV_Vaccine_Now_Available_In_Boots_Pharmacies_Across_England_And_Wales
http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Cervical-Cancer-HPV-Vaccine-Now-Available-In-Boots-Pharmacies-Across-England-And-Wales/Article/200909215379269?lpos=UK_News_Article_Related_Content_Region_8&lid=ARTICLE_15379269_Cervical_Cancer_HPV_Vaccine_Now_Available_In_Boots_Pharmacies_Across_England_And_Wales

Bystander activation, molecular mimicry

cmr.asm.org/cgi/reprint/19/1/80.pdf

PBOX-15 and Fludarabine

'Fludarabine is licensed for the initial treatment of advanced B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) or after first-line treatment in patients with sufficient bone-marrow reserves; it is given by mouth, by intravenous injection, or by intravenous infusion. Fludarabine is well tolerated but it does cause myelosuppression, which may be cumulative. Immunosuppression is also common (see panel on cladribine and fludarabine below), and co-trimoxazole is used to prevent pneumocystis infection. Immune-mediated haemolytic anaemia, thrombocytopenia, and neutropenia are less common side-effects.

The Scottish Medicines Consortium has advised (October 2006) that fludarabine is accepted for restricted use for the treatment of B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL) in patients with sufficient bone marrow reserves. First-line treatment should only be initiated in patients with advanced disease, Rai stages III/IV (Binet stage C), or Rai stages I/II (Binet stage A/B) where the patient has disease-related symptoms or evidence of progressive disease.

NICE guidance
Fludarabine monotherapy for the first-line treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (February 2007)

Fludarabine monotherapy, is not recommended for the first-line treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukaemia.'

BNF

http://www.pnptherapeutics.com/technology-how.html
http://www.pnptherapeutics.com/technology-how.html

PBOX-15: anti-leukaemia drug under development
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6806267-0-large.jpg
http://www.springerlink.com/content/rq5j447430578094/fulltext.html

http://www.farmakeutikoskosmos.gr/html/page.asp?lang=1&pageID=40&recID=460

Tay-Sachs

"What is Tay-Sachs Disease?

Tay-Sachs disease is a fatal genetic lipid storage disorder in which harmful quantities of a fatty substance called ganglioside GM2 build up in tissues and nerve cells in the brain. The condition is caused by insufficient activity of an enzyme called beta-hexosaminidase A that catalyzes the biodegradation of acidic fatty materials known as gangliosides. Gangliosides are made and biodegraded rapidly in early life as the brain develops.

Infants with Tay-Sachs disease appear to develop normally for the first few months of life. Then, as nerve cells become distended with fatty material, a relentless deterioration of mental and physical abilities occurs. The child becomes blind, deaf, and unable to swallow. Muscles begin to atrophy and paralysis sets in. Other neurological symptoms include dementia, seizures, and an increased startle reflex to noise. A much rarer form of the disorder occurs in patients in their twenties and early thirties and is characterized by an unsteady gait and progressive neurological deterioration. Persons with Tay-Sachs also have "cherry-red" spots in their eyes. The incidence of Tay-Sachs is particularly high among people of Eastern European and Askhenazi Jewish descent. Patients and carriers of Tay-Sachs disease can be identified by a simple blood test that measures beta-hexosaminidase A activity. Both parents must carry the mutated gene in order to have an affected child. In these instances, there is a 25 percent chance with each pregnancy that the child will be affected with Tay-Sachs disease. Prenatal diagnosis is available if desired.


Is there any treatment?

Presently there is no treatment for Tay-Sachs disease. Anticonvulsant medicine may initially control seizures. Other supportive treatment includes proper nutrition and hydration and techniques to keep the airway open. Children may eventually need a feeding tube.

What is the prognosis?

Even with the best of care, children with Tay-Sachs disease usually die by age 4, from recurring infection."

http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/taysachs/taysachs.htm

iodine

http://www.stoller-eser.com/factsheet/iodine.pdf

electronic Rx service

http://www.connectingforhealth.nhs.uk/newsroom/news-stories/epsrelease2

Lidosite

Lidosite is an iontophoretic system of delivery of lidocaine.
http://www.bbraunusa.com/images/bbraun_usa/lido_prescribing_info.pdf
Iontophoresis is the introduction of ionizable drugs throug intact skin by the administration of continuous, direct electrical current into the tissues of the body.
http://www.aetna.com/cpb/medical/data/200_299/0229.html

Aradigm AERx System

http://www.aradigm.com/technologies.html

Mucociliary escalator

http://www.colorado.edu/Outreach/BSI/k12activities/interactive/actidhpamucociliary.html

Apendicitis and air polution

http://health.in.gr/news/article.asp?lngArticleID=159648

Pregnancy and Chicken Pox

http://www.pjonline.com/content/asking_the_pharmacist_%E2%80%94_questions_from_practice_3#

Erythema

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000851.htm

Manuka honey

Sterile manuka honey dressings are well-known for their antiseptic properties.

It is coming from leptospermum species.

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.utas.edu.au/docs/plant_science/field_botany/species_images/Dicots/myrta%2520images/leptlani.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.utas.edu.au/docs/plant_science/field_botany/species/dicots/myrtasp/leptlani.html&usg=__TZk_Dg_P9ASaEsEQs2fcZdo3elM=&h=520&w=300&sz=96&hl=en&start=15&um=1&tbnid=tuuX5qqMUJnaGM:&tbnh=131&tbnw=76&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dleptospermum%2Bspecies%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:*:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7SUNA_en%26sa%3DN%26um%3D1

Calf muscle

http://content.revolutionhealth.com/contentimages/nr55552004.jpg

http://www.hughston.com/hha/b.ten6.jpg

COPD

http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease/Pages/Introduction.aspx

Free NHS Health Checks

http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/DH_097490
http://www.dh.gov.uk/prod_consum_dh/groups/dh_digitalassets/@dh/@en/documents/digitalasset/dh_097495.pdf
http://www.nhs.uk/Planners/NHSHealthCheck/Pages/NHSHealthCheck.aspx

Hernia Operation

"What's involved?
Hernia surgery is to repair inguinal hernia, femoral hernia, incisional hernia and umbilical hernia.
A hernia is a lump that occurs when some of the contents of the abdomen push through a weakness in the muscles of the abdominal wall. The aim of a hernia repair operation is to push the intestine back in place and strengthen the abdominal wall.
There are several different types of hernia. A hernia at the navel (belly button) is called an umbilical hernia. Inguinal and femoral hernias are located in the groin. An incisional hernia results from a weakness in the abdominal wall caused by previous surgery.
Hernias are usually repaired under general anaesthetic. Both open and ‘laparoscopic’ (key-hole) surgical techniques can be used. The procedures take around 45 minutes and you may need to stay overnight in hospital."
http://www.spirehealthcare.com/Our-Treatments/Body-Map-and-A-Z/A-Z-Treatments/Hernia-surgery/?utm_source=google&utm_medium=cpc&utm_term=hernia%20operation

Groin = βουβώνας, βουβωνική χώρα

Wounds

http://www.ms-information.org/medical/health-care-areas/surgical-ward/wound-care/wound-care-procedure.htm
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/wound_care/article_em.htm

Malnutrition

http://www.bapen.org.uk/pdfs/must/must_full.pdf
http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG032NICEguideline.pdf

Obesity

http://www.foresight.gov.uk/Obesity/1International%20comparisons%20version%20for%20web%20publication%2030%20May.pdf
http://troktiko.blogspot.com/2009/10/blog-post_9582.html
http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2009/oct/25/obesity-rights-discrimination-nhs-cost

Buccal delivery

http://www.aapspharmscitech.org/articles/pt0803/pt0803054/pt0803054_figure2.jpg
http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/5766620/claims.html
http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5650192.html

VA111913

New anti-dysmenorrhoea drug in the pipeline by Vantia Therapeutics. It acts via the V1a blockade which leads to a reduction of the contractions and thus pain during menstrual cycle.

128 British and American women participate in phase 2 clinical trials at the moment.

http://www.vantiatherapeutics.com/pipeline/va111913.php

http://www.farmakeutikoskosmos.gr/html/page.asp?lang=1&pageID=40&recID=450

Scaffold and Pharmacophore

http://www.chemcomp.com/journal/scaffold.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacophore

GUM clinics

"Sexual health clinics are sometimes known as genito-urinary medicine (GUM) clinics. They are usually located at your local hospital, or as part of another health centre, in a separate building. You can find your nearest sexual health clinic by visiting the Family Planning Association website (see 'further information), or by calling NHS Direct on 0845 4647.

Genito-urinary medicine deals with the male and female sexual organs and the urinary system (the system in the body that produces, stores and gets rid of urine). Your GP might refer you to a sexual health clinic if you have a problem with these parts of your body. You can also make an appointment to see someone at a sexual health clinic without being referred by your GP.

GUM clinics can usually give you tests for sexual and urinary health problems, such as:

•sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as syphilis, gonorrhoea, genital warts, and chlamydia,
•HIV or AIDs,
•cystitis (bladder infection), and
•other infections of the genitals, such as thrush.
At most GUM clinics you can make an appointment for a general check up, which also include tests for a range of STIs. Before starting a new sexual relationship, it's a good idea for you and your partner to be tested for any sexually transmitted infections. You might also want to have a check-up before trying for a baby.

GUM clinics can provide contraceptive advice, including free emergency contraception and condoms. Some clinics may also be able to fit cervical caps or diaphragms (a form of contraception), and provide cervical smear tests (a test to check for any abnormal cells in the neck of the womb). They can also offer advice and counselling on a range of sexual health issues, and provide support if you're having an HIV test, or if you have been diagnosed as HIV positive.

If you visit a GUM clinic, everything that is discussed is completely confidential. Your GP will not be told about your visit, and you do not have to give your real name if you do not want to."

http://www.nhs.uk/chq/pages/972.aspx

Vaccine against cocaine dependence

There is a conjugated vaccine undergoing clinical trials which shows a reduction in cocaine dependence. In this case, the vaccine works by antibodies inoculation to our blood system. This antibodies attatch to cocaine and prevent it from crossing the blood-brain barrier and enter the brain causing effects like euphoria. 38% of the vaccinated population ended up having an adequate antiboy level being high for about 2 months, before they needed a booster vaccine. Higher antibody levels are more efficient than lower ones.

Immunotherapy is promising in reducing dependences to nicotine, heroin and methamphetamines as well.

Superfetation in human beings

http://specials.msn.com/A-List/Superfetation.aspx?cp-searchtext=Superfetation&FORM=MSNHAL

Mycobacterium avium in shower heads

http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8254206.stm

Aux arbres citoyens

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ATqz1Xg9OZE

Lyrics to Aux Arbres Citoyens :
Le ciment dans les plaines
Coule jusqu'aux montagnes
Poison dans les fontaines,
Dans nos campagnes

De cyclones en rafales
Notre histoire prend l'eau
Reste notre idéal
"Faire les beaux"

S'acheter de l'air en barre
Remplir la balance :
Quelques pétrodollars
Contre l'existence

De l'équateur aux pôles,
Ce poids sur nos épaulees
De squatters éphémers...
Maintenant c'est plus drôle

Puisqu'il faut changer les choses
Aux arbres citoyens !
Il est grand temps qu'on propose
Un monde pour demain !

Aux arbres citoyens
Quelques baffes à prendre
La veille est pour demain
Des baffes à rendre

Faire tenir debour
Une armée de roseaux
Plus personne à genoux
Fait passer le mot

C'est vrai la terre est ronde
Mais qui viendra nous dire
Qu'elle l'est pour tout le monde...
Et les autres à venir...

Puisqu'il faut changer les choses
Aux arbres citoyens !
Il est grand temps qu'on propose
Un monde pour demain !

Puisqu'il faut changer les choses
Aux arbres citoyens !
Il est grand temps qu'on s'oppose
Un monde pour demain !


plus le remps de savoir à qui la faute
De compter la chance ou les autres
Maintenant on se bat
Avec toi moi j'y crois

Puisqu'il faut changer les choses
Aux arbres citoyens !
Il est grand temps qu'on propose
Un monde pour demain !

http://www.lyricsmania.com/lyrics/yannick_noah_lyrics_4366/charango_lyrics_32496/aux_arbres_citoyens_lyrics_351747.html

Chromosomal packing

http://bioweb.wku.edu/courses/biol566/Images/ChromatinF09-35.JPG

Crampex

Crampex contains calcium gluconate to help correct any calcium deficiency, cholecalciferol to aid calcium absorption and nicotinic acid to improve poor peripheral circulation.

More details here:
http://www.thorntonross.com/crampex/crampex.htm

Chlamydia test

test discharge for presence of organism
http://freetest.me.uk/
http://www.labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/chlamydia/test.html
http://www.labtestsonline.org/news/chlamydia080130.html

Sinuses-Sinusitis

http://www.cityallergy.com/images/SinusAnatomy2.jpg

"The sinuses are paired air pockets located within the bones of the face. They are:

•the frontal sinuses; located above the eyes, in the center region of each eyebrow
•the maxillary sinuses; located within the cheekbones, just to either side of the nose
•the ethmoid sinuses; located between the eyes, just behind the bridge of the nose
•the sphenoid sinuses; located just behind the ethmoid sinuses, and behind the eyes
The sinuses are connected with the nose. They are lined with the same kind of skin found elsewhere within the respiratory tract. This skin has tiny little hairs projecting from it, called cilia. The cilia beat constantly, to help move the mucus produced in the sinuses into the respiratory tract. The beating cilia sweeping the mucus along the respiratory tract helps to clear the respiratory tract of any debris, or any organisms which may be present. When the lining of the sinuses is at all swollen, the swelling interferes with the normal flow of mucus. Trapped mucus can then fill the sinuses, causing an uncomfortable sensation of pressure and providing an excellent environment for the growth of infection-causing bacteria."

— Rosalyn Carson-DeWitt, MD

http://www.answers.com/topic/sinusitis

Mouth (Oral Cavity)

Respiratory tract

'What am I to say to them?'

The article can be viewed here:

http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2009/aug/23/sarah-gabriel-cancer-gene-mutation

"Sarah Gabriel was a teenager when she lost her mother to cancer. Now the gene mutation means she is fighting for her own life - and her daughters may have to follow in her footsteps"

A very interesting article, which gives an insight on the feelings of cancer patients and their families.

Nebulizers

Probiotics

Good?
http://www.isapp.net/
http://www.usprobiotics.org/

OR
Bad?
http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2009/jul/25/probiotic-health-benefits
http://bacteriality.com/2008/06/11/probiotics/

The Ugly Truth: Bugs and Their Bites

http://health.msn.com/health-topics/slideshow.aspx?cp-documentid=100242980&imageindex=1

Eye examination

Blood Smear

http://www.nejm.org/slideshows/2005/20050804/slides1.htm

Health after Oil

http://healthafteroil.wordpress.com/
http://www.archive.org/details/PeakOilAndSustainableMedicine
http://www.archive.org/details/PeakOilAndSustainableMedicine

Oily vs Non-oily fish

For those who are interested in differentiating between oily and non-oily fish here is a link:
http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2004/jun/oilyfishdefinition
Apparently, oily fish have a high content of ω-3, which are good for the brain and heart function.
http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/omega-3-000316.htm

Lyme Disease

Ear

Head Lice

Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis) are insects living and feeding on blood usually from children heads.

Signs of head lice are itchiness due to an allergy to lice saliva which is inserted to the blood. Also, the insects shown below can be found on children scalps.

Nits -empty lice eggs- can be also found in the head. They are white and usually look like dandruff or head dermatitis, but in constrast to dandruff they are firmly stuck on hair.

Diabetes and monitoring

Monitoring in Diabetes is essential and it is fundamental that the patients know how to use the monitor devices to check their blood glucose levels. This is particularly important to indirectly measure the effect of insulin, hypoglyceamic drugs, illnesses, exercise, dietary and other lifestyle changes.

Diabetes

Pancreas is the key organ for metabolism as it can be seen by the following diagram.
β-cells release insulin, stimulating glucose utilization and uptake and α-cells release glucagon, increasing the breakdown of glycogen and glucose release.

Normal blood glucose levels are 3.3-6.0mmol/L when fasting and less than 11.1mmol/L when non-fasting. Glucose levels being above 7.0mmol/L is an indication of hypoglyceamia and possibly diabetes mellitus.
There are quite a few types of diabetes. The most common ones are Type 1 - also known as insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)- and Type 2- also known as insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (ΝIDDM). Type 1 is characterised by the destruction of β-cells responsible for producing insulin in the pancreas. It is divided into Type 1A- Autoimmune T cells are responsible for destroying β-cells and Type1B, which is idiopathic. Type 2 is caused by a relative insulin deficiency and/or insulin resistance. Other types of diabetes include genetic defects of β-cell function, genetic defects in insulin action, diseases of the exocrine pancreas, endocrinopathies, drug or chemical induced (e.g. nicotinic acid, glucocorticoids, high dose thiazides, pentamidine, interferon-α), infections, uncommon forms of immune-mediated diabetes, other genetic syndromes sometimes associated with diabetes and gestational diabetes.

The main symptoms of diabetes are polyuria, nocturia and polydipsia due to osmotic diuresis, fatigue due to inability to use glucose, weight loss due to breakdown of protein and fat instead of glucose and blurred vision. Hypoglyceamia, ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycaemia are diabetic emergencies, whereas cardiovascular disease, hypertension, peripheral vascular disease, retinopathy, nephropathy, peripheral neuropathy and diabetic foot are complications often associated with diabetes.

Treatment involves diet, exercise, weight control as well as a drug therapy.

Why do we need to bother about Pharmacology?

News on Migraine

I had a group presentation to do on migraines as part of my course. I was responsible for explaining how triptans work and why rizatriptan works better than other triptans. It was due to this presentation that I learned about all the different theories of the causes and triggers of migraine. One cause that we never found information about was patent foramen ovale (PFO).
PFO is a hole in the heart that embryos have and once they are fully developed it closes. In some people though, the hole doesn't close before their birth. Usually, this hole is not problematic, but it is lately believed that it could be the reason for some people's migraines associated with auras and if the hole is closed through surgery then the migraine frequency can be reduced significantly.
Though, due to the risk of this surgery, it is suggested that it should be performed only if any other treatment has not worked.
Studies to investigate if PFO is associated with migraine, if the surgery will help and to determine the risk-benefit ratio are recently taking place.

Clinical pharmacy

Clinical pharmacy def:


http://www.escpweb.org/site/cms/contentViewArticle.asp?article=1712


Pharmaceutical care def:


Hepler, C.D. and Strand, L., 1990. Opportunities and responsibilities in pharmaceutical care. Am J Hosp Pharm. 47:533-543.


EBP def:


Sackett DL et al BMJ 1996, 312:71-2


Clinical governence def:


http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/PublicationsPolicyAndGuidance/DH_4008717


Patients and risk:


http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/327/7417/757


Reduction of risk:


http://www.rpsgb.org/informationresources/downloadsocietypublications/#m


Lies and stats:


http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/327/7417/757


Risk:
http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/Risk/cohen.html

Integrated care pathway:

http://www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/glossary/ICP.html

Pharmacy Future

Southern blot



Northern Blot



Westen Blot



SDS-Page



FISH



PCR



Real-time PCR


RNAi



DNA sequencing



Herceptin

cerebellar insufficiency:

Difficulties of concentration and memory
Absentmindedness
Confusion
Lack of energy
Tiredness
Decreased physical performance
Depressive mood
Anxiety
Dizziness
Tinnitus :

(Tinnitus is the perception of noise in the ear or head, which is generated inside the body rather than coming from outside. Tinnitus is usually only heard by the person with the condition, but in a very few rare cases it can also be heard by other people. Temporary tinnitus is common if you have a cold, after exposure to loud noise, such as at a music concert, or following a blow to the head. About one in 100 people experience serious problems with long-term, established tinnitus.
The sounds can be heard in one ear, both ears, or can appear to come from the middle of the head. The condition is more common in older people, but it can occur at any age, even in quite young children. It often gets worse at quiet times, such as when you're trying to sleep. This is because there is less background noise to mask or distract you from the sounds associated with tinnitus. Tinnitus may also be more noticeable when you're tired.
It is estimated that around 10% of the population are affected by some degree of tinnitus. For most people it is an irritation they learn to live with, but for others it can lead to poor concentration, difficulty in sleeping and depression.)
Headache

http://www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/band18/b18-3.html

http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Tinnitus/Pages/Introduction.aspx

Phase 2 Metabolism

After a break, reading through this text: http://emitak.blogspot.com/2009/05/blog-post_06.html#comment-form, my mind was clearer and now the difference between the dif. types of phase 2 metabolism are crystal clear!

One of the first things that M.M. told us was that Glucuronidation is not the same metabolic process as that performed by β-D-glucuronidase. Glucuronidation is all about UDP leaving the sugar and allowing the nucleophilic xenobiotic (drug) to bind to the sugar, changing the stereochemistry from α to β. Now, the role of β-D-glucuronidase is that if after glucuronidation the drug is not hydrophilic enough to be excreted in the urine, then it is recycled by passing to the bile. β-D-glucuronidase cleaves the drug and glucuronide apart, recycling the drug and increasing its hald-life.

In case a drug is toxic, glutathione is going to be used to remove the toxic electrophile. This happens in the case of paracetamol.

vit.E and rancidity

rancidity of f.a.:

"condition produced by aerial oxidation of unsaturated fat present in foods and other products, marked by unpleasant odour or flavour. When a fatty substance is exposed to air, its unsaturated components are converted into hydroperoxides, which break down into volatile aldehydes, esters, alcohols, ketones, and hydrocarbons, some of which have disagreeable odours. Butter becomes rancid by the foregoing process and by hydrolysis, which liberates volatile and malodorous acids, particularly butyric acid. Saturated fats such as beef tallow are resistant to oxidation and seldom become rancid at ordinary temperatures"

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/490981/rancidity

vit.E has an antioxidant activity, prevents ageing and heart diseases and in food manufacturing can be used to retard f.a. rancidity.

http://www.clemson.edu/foodscience/PDF%20Downloads/Science%20Experiments/oxidation.pdf

Mode of action of sterilisation processes

Hydrolysis : moist heat sterilisation (dry saturated steam rather than superheated/supersaturated steam used-- heat: dry saturated steam @ 121C and 15PSIG contains sensible heat (218BTU/lb) and "latent heat"- the quantity of heat absorbed/released from a substance, suach as ice changing to water/water to steam @ constant T,P- (946BTU/lb), hydration: dry saturated steam + cooled bac.spore i autoclave, steam condenses and hydrates (nt oxidises) the spore. Te layer of condensed H2O imporves heat transfer (rapid!), penetration: rapid-- cotton, wool dressings

bench autoclave, downward displacement autoclave (bottles, surgical instruments), porous load autoclave (bottle fluids, instruments, glassware)

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/aminoacids/proteinhydrolysis.html

Oxidation : dry heat sterilisation, used when cold conditions must be applied

substances that cannot be subjected to moisture H2O soluble powders (heat stable), materials nt penetrable by steam (ols, fats, waxes), glassware, instruments (forceps)

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/inorganic/redox/definitions.html

Alkylation : gases: ethylene oxide (plastic, glass made delicate, complex apparatus), formaldehyde, LTSF, can be used in absence of heat, but sterilisation process is too long

http://www.chemguide.co.uk/mechanisms/elsub/fcalkyl.html

Free radical formation: ionizing radiation (γ-radiation, Xrays, accelarated e-s)

disposable plastics, syringes, catheters, petri dishes, radiation stable ointments and solutions (eye drops)

Chemical Lesions (pyrimidine dimers) of DNA : non-ionising radiation (UV radiation/electromagnetic radiation)

disinfect clean surfaces- laminar flow cabinet after use, cleaned and exposed to UV to reduce contamination, also reduce microbial levels in H2O

First do no harm

A film that inspired me to the fullest to do a Msc in Nutrition and then if possible to apply for a Msc/PG Dip degree in Diet Therapy, after finishing my degree in Pharmacy . I strongly believe that it is true that sometimes drugs do not work as they should do as it is revealed in the true-based story of the film. The film is about a boy- Robbie, who was diagnosed with epilepsy. His condition was complicated and severe and as there was not a clear-cut drug therapy for his case, it was suggested to his parents to undergo an experimental stage and he was prescribed with multiple drugs that made him have multiple and severe side effects. His behaviour, learning abilities and memory were distorted, he had physiological side effects as well, such as constipation which was treated with other medicines, which in turn brought the boy other side effects. Since his condition was not improving, the doctors suggested that he should undergo a surgery and part of his brain to be removed. It is true that that is hemispherectomy can help in the treament of epilepsy, especially of young children, whose epilepsy cause is a dysfunction in one brain side. Suitable candidates are patients who have an underlying disease, such as Rasmussen's encephalitis or Sturge-Weber syndrome, which has damaged the hemisphere.

http://www.epilepsy.com/epilepsy/hemispherectomy
http://my.clevelandclinic.org/services/Functional_Hemispherectomy/hic_Functional_Hemispherectomy.aspx
Hemispherectomy worked as expected in some cases due to the brain's feature of plasticity, also known as neuroplasticity or brain malleability. "This is the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. Neuroplasticity allows the neurons (nerve cells) in the brain to compensate for injury and disease and to adjust their activities in response to new situations or to changes in their environment.
Brain reorganization takes place by mechanisms such as "axonal sprouting" in which undamaged axons grow new nerve endings to reconnect neurons whose links were injured or severed. Undamaged axons can also sprout nerve endings and connect with other undamaged nerve cells, forming new neural pathways to accomplish a needed function.
For example, if one hemisphere of the brain is damaged, the intact hemisphere may take over some of its functions. The brain compensates for damage in effect by reorganizing and forming new connections between intact neurons. In order to reconnect, the neurons need to be stimulated through activity.
Neuroplasticity sometimes may also contribute to impairment. For example, people who are deaf may suffer from a continual ringing in their ears (tinnitus), the result of the rewiring of brain cells starved for sound. For neurons to form beneficial connections, they must be correctly stimulated."
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=40362

Cases of children who have undergone this brain surgery are:


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oSnTJnXSL9U

However, sometimes parents are scared of letting their child undergo such risky surgeries and certainly they are devastated of seeing their child suffering from all the drug side effects, hence although not recommended by doctors due to absence of double-blind evidence-based studies, parents do not hesitate trying the ketogenic diet therapy. This therapy, as it is mentioned in the site of Charlie Foundation http://www.charliefoundation.org/#, "might not be recommended for children with partial seizures, as they may not respond as well, but ketogenic diet helps control seizures in up to two-thirds of children refractory to anticonvulsant drugs. The role of ketone bodies as markers of seizure control is imprecisely defined and their role as direct anticonvulsant agents is also unknown. Tests for transporter defects and enzyme deficiencies help screen diet candidates, however testing is quite difficult as urine dipsticks commonly used for this purpose measure acetoacetate, the less prominent ketone body. Which ketone body actually correlates best with seizure control is unknown. If beta-hydroxybutyrate ketone is actually the preferred marker, a new reflectance meter (Keto-Site™, GDS Diagnostics) will assay the D-isomer from a small drop of blood. But then, what is the “therapeutic concentration” Although, important clinical questions about the ketogenic diet remain unanswered" http://www.charliefoundation.org/frames/diet/overview.php, the fact that this diet helps patients overcome their seizures and not relapse again cannot be denied. In the film, Robbie was treated in the end and didn't appear to have fits anymore. The same hold true for several other patients who had been treated with this diet and have participared in the film. And finally, Charlie Abraham, whose parents founded Charlie Foundation, has also been treated with this diet after anticonvulsant drugs didn't help improve his condition. After being treated, he didn't appear to have fits anymore and he has even participated himself in this movie.

Doctor and all the other healthcare professionals (including me as a one-to-be) please remember, choose the best therapy for your patient, so as never to do harm. FIRST DO NO HARM!http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath

Sources of contamination

Air:
spore formers:
a bacteria or other small life form that forms spores.
Bacillus:
http://www.safefood.net.au/AudienceHierarchy/TheBugBible/Bacillus+cereus+and+other+Bacillus+species.htm
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/Bacillus.html
Clostridium:
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/clostridia.html
non-spore formers:
Staphylococcus:
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/staph_2.html
Streptococcus:
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/streptococcus.html
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/S.pneumoniae.html
moulds:
Penicillium:
http://www.doctorfungus.org/thefungi/penicillium.htm
yeasts

H2O:
Pseudomonas:
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/970904-overview
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/pseudomonas.html
E.Coli:
http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/e.coli_2.html
Proteus:
http://web.uconn.edu/mcbstaff/graf/Student%20presentations/Proteus/Proteus.html
Micrococcus:
http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/msds-ftss/msds100e-eng.php
Bacillus subtilis

Raw materials
extensive and varied microflora

Packaging:
cardboard:
penicillium
Aspergillus:
http://www.doctorfungus.org/thefungi/aspergillus_spp.htm
Bacillus
Pseudomonads if wet:
http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAweb&HPAwebStandard/HPAweb_C/1195733822642
glass

Equipment:
Biofilms
Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Personnel:
Microcci, Staphylococci
Yeasts, Fungi
enterobacteriaceae:
http://www.microbionet.com.au/enterobacteriaceae.htm

e.g.http://farmakopoioi.blogspot.com/2009/02/blog-post_9469.html

eye products: Ps.aeruginosa, Staph.aureus
non sterile oral products: E.coli, Staph.aureus, Clostridium sp., Ps.aeruginosa, Candida, fungi
non sterile topical products: Ps.aeruginosa, Klebsiella, Staph.aureus, Clostridium sp.

LSD

Lysergic Acid Diethyamide

Lysergic Acid is an Ergot Alkaloid.

Ergot Alkaloids can be used medicinally, despite the fact that some of them are v.toxic and poisonous.

They are toxic, as they are thought to be responsible for Ergot disease.

Ergot disease is a fungal disease of plants.

The fungi species Claviceps is responsible for this plant disease.

During this disease, plant (usually rye) grains become harder and seedlike ("ergots").

If humans and animals consume the diseased grains, they get poisoned.

As for LSD:

"LSD is sold on the street in tablets, capsules, and occasionally in liquid form. It is an odorless and colorless substance with a slightly bitter taste that is usually ingested orally. It is often added to absorbent paper, such as blotter paper, and divided into small decorated squares, with each square representing one dose.

The short-term effects of LSD are unpredictable. They depend on the amount of the drug taken; the user's personality, mood, and expectations; and the surroundings in which the drug is used. Usually, the user feels the first effects of the drug within 30 to 90 minutes of ingestion. These experiences last for extended periods of time and typically begin to clear after about 12 hours. The physical effects include dilated pupils, higher body temperature, increased heart rate and blood pressure, sweating, loss of appetite, sleeplessness, dry mouth, and tremors. Sensations may seem to "cross over" for the user, giving the feeling of hearing colors and seeing sounds. If taken in a large enough dose, the drug produces delusions and visual hallucinations.

LSD users often have flashbacks, during which certain aspects of their LSD experience recur even though they have stopped taking the drug. In addition, LSD users may develop long-lasting psychoses, such as schizophrenia or severe depression. LSD is not considered an addictive drug - that is, it does not produce compulsive drug-seeking behavior as cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine do. However, LSD users may develop tolerance to the drug, meaning that they must consume progressively larger doses of the drug in order to continue to experience the hallucinogenic effects that they seek."

http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/concern/lsd.html

Oxaprozin

Oxaprozin is a NSAID used as an antinflammatory to reduce rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. It works by reducing prostaglandins levels.

CAM-Complementary and Alternative Medication

useful links:

http://nccam.nih.gov/

http://www.medicine.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/

Objectives of this blog

Back on October, when I decided to begin this blog, I was just aiming to rewrite some lecture notes. I didn't have the time and I didn't find it useful. Now, I'm just going to add interesting information I learn about medicines, natural products, food, supplements, pharmacy law, health psychology e.t.c., so as to have a collection for me and for others who might have an interest in the above subjects.